Team Sports Essay Example for Free

Team Sports Essay A team sport includes any sportwhich involves players working together towards a shared objective. It is an activity in which a group of individuals, on the same team, work together to accomplish an ultimate goal which is usually to win. This can be done in a number of ways such as outscoring the opposing team. Team members set goals, make decisions, communicate, manage conflict, and solve problems in a supportive, trusting atmosphere in order to accomplish their objectives. This can be seen in sports such as hockey,football, American football, baseball, association football, basketball, volleyball, tennis, water polo, lacrosse, rowing, rugby league, rugby union, cricket, handball and many others. Different kinds of team sports * Basketball * Volleyball * Baseball * Football * American football * British baseball * Beach volleyball * Sepak takraw * Airsoft * Ultimate * Underwater rugby Volleyball Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other teams court under organized rules It has been a part of the official program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. Objectives of volleyball PUT THE BALL INTO PLAY Every volleyball point starts with one team serving the ball and the other team receiving it. The serving team must clear the ball over the net and in bounds, and the receiving team must return over the net and in bounds before it hits the ground. Before the match begins, the referee will conduct a coin toss to determine which team serves first and on which side of the court each team begins the match. Win the Rally To score a point in volleyball, you must win a rally or have your opponent commit a fault. The rally begins with the serve and ends as soon as the ball hits the ground. If the serving team wins the rally, it receives 1 point and retains service. If the receiving teams wins the rally, it receives 1 point and gains service. Faults occur whenever one team breaks a rule of the game. If both teams commit a fault at the same time, you replay the rally with neither team receiving a point. Win the Set The first team to score 25 points in a set, except for the fifth set, wins that set. You must win a set by at least 2 points, however, so play continues until one team has a lead of two points after reaching 25. Win the Match To win a match, you must win three out of five sets. If each team wins two of the first four sets, your final set will go to 15 points instead of 25. Teams must still win the final set by at least 2 points, so play continues past 15 until one team achieves this. In a tournament, teams will play only three sets, so the first team to win two sets wins the match. If a tournament requires a playoff to determine which team advances, you will play a one-set playoff. Tournament organizers will predetermine whether you play the set to 15 or 25 points and you must win by 2 points. Defense: Rational defense As the name suggests, players rotate into their read position based on how the play is developing. For instance, if the opponent sets to its outside hitter, the middle front and right-side front players block. The outside blocker stays home and covers the rest of the front court. The right back defender edges up behind the blockers to pick up balls tipped over them. The left back is responsible for the deep angle ball. The middle back rotates to the same sideline where the ball was set. The rotation changes if the opponent sets to its right-side hitter or the middle hitter. Perimeter defense In the perimeter defense, players start in the same base position as in rotational defense. But as the play unfolds, there is less movement into the read positions. This is a good defense to dig out hard-driven balls. It is more vulnerable to tips, relying on players to take away those plays with their athletic ability. As such, it is more popular with mens teams with more size and range. Man Up or Red Defense As the name suggests, the man up or red defense moves a back player up to support the front three players. This protects the middle of court from middle attacks and tips. It keeps the wing players deep. This formation minimizes the movement from base position to defensive zone. The deeper base positions allow players to keep most plays in front of them. Fine-Tuning the Schemes Within these basic concepts, countless adjustments can be made to suit the ability of the team. Hybrid defensive schemes are common. As volleyball coaching legend Bill Neville once said, Defense should be designed so that it allows for putting the best diggers in areas that will most often be attacked. Brief history of volleyball In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old! The sport originated in the United States, and is now just achieving the type of popularity in the U.S. that it has received on a global basis, where it ranks behind only soccer among participation sports. Today there are more than 800 million players worldwide who play Volleyball at least once a week. In 1895, William G. Morgan, an instructor at the Young Mens Christian Association (YMCA) in Holyoke, Mass., decided to blend elements of basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball to create a game for his classes of businessmen which would demand less physical contact than basketball. He created the game of Volleyball (at that time called mintonette). Morgan borrowed the net from tennis, and raised it 6 feet 6 inches above the floor, just above the average mans head. During a demonstration game, someone remarked to Morgan that the players seemed to be volleying the ball back and forth over the net, and perhaps volleyball would be a more descriptive name for the sport. On July 7, 1896 at Springfield College the first game of volleyball was played. * In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport. * In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced. * In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points. * In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted. * In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played. * In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees. * In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded. * In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held. * In 1949, the initial World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia. * In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo. * In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan. * In 1987, the FIVB added a Beach Volleyball World Championship Series. * In 1990, the World League was created. * In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old! * In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball was added to the Olympics While serving, coaches may make more zones to serve to so that they can make the other team move and force a bad pass. Some people determine zones according to the net. These are where their sets are going to go in the offensive. Basic skills in volleyball Volleyball play is comprised of the following basic components: passing, setting, spiking, blocking, serving, and receiving serve. * Passing is the act of sending the volleyball to a setter so that he or she can, in turn, present the ball to the spiker for an attack. The two primary passing methods are the bump and the dig. * Setting the ball is a critical area of the overall offensive attack. If the set is poorly placed, it can dramatically lower the effectiveness of even versatile spikers, because it limits their hitting options and their likelihood of hitting a kill shot for a point or sideout. Conversely, a well-delivered set gives a hitter a much better chance to avoid blocks and direct the ball strategically. * Spiking is the act of driving the volleyball hard into an area of your opponents court. The two basic power shots are the cross-court shot and the baseline shot.Once an opponent has developed a healthy respect for a teams spiking power, alternative offensive shots such as tips and dinks can be employed with greater effectiveness. * Blocking is the primary defensive skill used to neutralize strong spiking attacks. It involves using players arms to form a wall in front of the spiker, thus making it more difficult for him or her to hit the ball into the opposite court. When properly executed, a good block can be an effective weapon in scoring points or securing sideouts. In high-level competition, teams commonly employ more than one blocker against good spikers. * Serving is a very important element of volleyball. A server who can serve the ball reliably and skillfully will help his or her team far more than will a player who, for instance, is inconsistent with their serving. There are a variety of serves that are employed in competitive volleyball, from floaters that seem to shimmy and shake on their way over the net to hard-driven jump serves. * Receiving the serve is vital to success for any team. Poor reception of service puts teams hoping to get a sideout at a huge disadvantage right from the beginning. If the person receiving the serve is unable to make a good pass to the setter, then the setters task of setting a good ball to the spiker is made that much more difficult. Receiving the serve sets the tone, then, for the whole offensive sequence that follows.

Mainstream Literature Does this Worsen the Text?

Mainstream Literature Does this Worsen the Text? How far does conceding to the popular mainstream strip a text of its literariness? (Explore the ways in which your chosen essay texts negotiate competing demands of literary and the popular) William Faulkner said of Ernest Hemingway: He has never been known to use a word that might send a reader to the dictionary (UOI, 1947) attempting to demean the literariness of his works. Hemingway responded; Poor Faulkner. Does he really think big emotions come from big words? I know them all right. But there are older and simpler and better words, and those are the ones I use. (Ross, 1950) His response to Faulkners elitism suggests that a text does not have to adhere to the implicit, often judgemental rules that define a piece of work as literary in order to be worthy of such a title. Using the poems of Linton Kwesi Johnson and The Hunger Games by Susanne Collins, I will analyse how both authors navigate the fine line between what is popular and what is literary, and whether this affects the overall impact of their work or its integrity as literary fiction. I intend to argue that a text does not have to present itself in a literary fashion in order to be considered worthy of the te rm literary, and similarly, literary texts can exist without conforming to the demands of mainstream culture whilst still being appreciated by modern society. In its simplest definition, literature is simply a written work; it is only when we place the boundaries of what is considered intellectual, or art, upon it that there becomes any kind of speculation as to whether a writers work is literary or not. In contrast, popular culture is a term associated with primarily Western entertainment, news, technology and sports. In its initial conception, the idea of popular was one associated with the uneducated working class, in comparison to the literary culture of the upper classes. Pop culture was the culture of those outside the power establishment; it was entirely separate from scorned and excluded by those in power, who had their own official culture (Berrong, 1986). As a result, there is an ongoing elitism toward popular culture, with many labelling it trite or unintelligent, or suggesting that low culture stress substance, form and being totally subservient; there is no explicit concern with abstract ideas or even with fictional forms of contemporary social problems and issues content to depict traditional working class values. (Gans, 2008) As a result, creators and audiences of popular culture are by association considered to be superficial or lacking in intellect. Popular fiction is defined as plot-driven fictional works, written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre, (French, 2010) so as to appeal to mainstream readers who buy into the pre-existing format because it is familiar, recognisable and easily digested. These so-called conventions of popular fiction are specific settings, roles, events and values that define individual genres and their subgenres (McKee, 1997) and often, publishing houses are known to present obligatory guidelines for authors to follow in order to have their works considered for publication. Any literature in fitting with these conventions is usually considered separate from literary fiction by critics for being stereotypical and poorly written; those texts are created solely to provide escapism to its readership as opposed to meaningful, carefully crafted prose that might incite thought or action. Literary fiction refers to works that hold so-called literary merit, which here means that they compr ise of political commentary, comments on societal hegemonic ideologies and the human condition. Like its popular counterpart, literary fiction is written purposely with its own set of conventions in mind, with the difference being that the focus of the works involved lingers more on themes than on fast-paced plot progression or audience appeal. It is arguable that pop culture is the easiest way to appease the mainstream, an audience fundamentally made up of young people; technology has transformed culture, especially popular culture, into the primary educational site in which youth learn about themselves and the larger world (Giroux, 2000). There has always been contentious debate regarding the discrepancies between high art, a category into which literature falls, and popular culture. However, it is arguable that this debate is obsolete; the distinction between the two is blurred just because a piece of work is easily accessible and appeals to the masses, does not necessarily sacr ifice its credibility or deem it an unintelligent piece of work that is lacking in thought. A televised adaptation of Austens Pride and Prejudice, or Baz Luhrmans modern reimagining of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, for instance, could be considered literary in an intertextual manner, being as their origins hail from classic literature. For instance, author John Storey would argue that the quantitative definition of culture has the problem that much high culture is also popular (Storey, 2014), making the two difficult to separate into distinguishable categories. It also could be said that pop culture is more intrinsic to society than so called high art, because it wields so much influence over the general public and which media they do or do not consume; in the struggle over the symbolic order that characterizes our times, popular culture developed by name brands and various forms of media, including the Hollywood film industry is crucial in creating the identities and representat ions that our youth embrace (Reynolds 2006). Linton Kwesi Johnson is a Jamaican writer based in the United Kingdom the second living poet, and the only poet of colour, to be immortalised in the Penguin Modern Classics collection. Johnson is a dub poet a genre that is, according to him, overcompensation for deprecation and as a writer, refuses to conform to English standards of poetry; he uses Creole patois as a political statement, defying the expectations society holds for poets. This phonetic, unstandardized transcription of his own language is certainly not that of great literary figures Jane Austen, George Orwell or Charles Dickens, and yet, he has been awarded the Golden PEN award in 2012 for a Lifetimes Distinguished Service to Literature. His idea of poetry has been passed through generations, and did not simply consist of standard Received Pronunciation English or what was deemed publishable but included traditional slave songs. Johnsons poetry is heavily inspired by the Black Panther movement, a group in which he be came active during his school years; their belief being that violence in the face of constant racism is necessary, using militant revolutionary force against the racist police and segregation of 1960s London. He himself describes his writing as a political act [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] poetry was a cultural weapon (Wroe, 2008). It was during Johnsons childhood that the SAS law, or the 1824 vagrancy act, was reintroduced, which enabled the police to arrest someone they suspected had intentions of committing a crime, allowing police to exploit and arrest people of colour in London without any evidence. The subject matter of his poetry is usually political, depicting his experiences as an African-Carribean living in Britain, but has also focused on foreign policies and police brutality. Johnsons poem If I woz a tap natch poet serves not only as an example of his subversion from the conventions of literary work but simultaneously describes his rejection of the canon, and his interstitial position between musician and poet, between high art and popular culture, between politics and aesthetics (McGill 2003). For instance, he begins if I waz a tap-natch poet, like Chris Okigbo, Derek Walcot ar T.S Eliot (Johnson, 2004); the opening challenges any predispositions suggesting that canons operate according to transparent principles of coherency or homogeneity. Chris Okigbo signals an alternative to the Western Canon advocated by critics. In contrast, Derek Walcott is a Nobel laureate, and his appearance suggests a movement back towards conservative tastes. However, the inclusion of T.S. Eliot demonstrates that the canon Johnson is crafting is unfortunately one made up entirely of people of colour. He continues by saying if he were top-notch himself, he would write a poem so h dyam deep/dat it bittah-sweet (Johnson, 2004), implying that the works of Okigbo, Walcott and Eliot create work that is deep or poses intellectual questions, a prerequisite of literariness. Moreover, the poem appears to carry another irony when analysed more thoroughly in that T. S Eliot appears as a token white poet, which is reflective of the way in which right-wing institutions that anthologise the zeitgeist of the times, such as anthologies, are known for including very few people of colour, sometimes just a single person, to demonstrate supposed diversity and avoid criticism or backlash from minorities. On perhaps the other end of the literary spectrum to Johnson is Suzanne Collins, an American writer, renowned for her young adult dystopian trilogy The Hunger Games. She was born in Harvard, Connecticut but being the daughter of a military officer, consistently moved across America. Consequently, inspired by her fathers career in the Air Force, her work tackles themes of war and its effects on the world, including poverty, starvation and innocent civilian death. The Hunger Games is set in Panem, a post-apocalyptic America made up of the Capitol and 12 surrounding districts; every year, two children from each district, male and female, are chosen to take part in an obligatory, televised fight to the death, known as the Hunger Games. The staggering popularity of her work resulted in her being named one of Time magazines most influential people of 2010 and as of March 2012, became the best-selling Kindle author of all time. It is not unusual for creators of literature to use so called p op culture tropes and appropriate them into high culture works; with the blurred lines of literary and popular first identifiable in the Romantic period where romance fiction became a substantial influence on future literature, despite having been previously disparaged. More recent examples include Andy Warhols use of the Campbell soup can in his pop art, as well as artist Jeff Koons conceptualising kitsch and pornography, subject matters often vilified for lacking in culture or finesse, to create new work which is supposedly worthier of the label high art. This same technique of intertextuality and the idea that any one piece of literature is created by combining several others is arguably evidenced in Collins dystopian novel; on the surface, it is a young adult romance implementing the typical formulaic conventions and character archetypes evidenced in the majority of mainstream pop culture, arguably inspired by the critical success of Stephanie Meyers Twilight saga. However, when discussing the origin of The Hunger Games, Collins cites the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur as the most significant inspiration for her book a classic Greek tale wherein Minos forces the people of Athens to sacrifice 14 women and children to be slaughtered by the Minotaur in the never-ending labyrinth. She also interweaved the concept of the Roman gladiator games; an all-powerful and ruthless government, people forced to fight to the death, and the games role as a source of popular information (Scholastic, 2010) and in doing so, she successfully brings re nowned, classic Greek literature to the mainstream audiences, albeit in a more easily digestible fashion, by reimagining the stories in a fashion that appeals to pop culture fans. Contrastingly, Johnsons poetry focuses not on fabled morality tales, but on real life issues of racism, segregation and police brutality, particularly in London, where he grew up. It can be assumed that, as this is not a topic to which popular culture utilise for its audiences, he does not concern himself with the opinions of critics, or of his audience for that matter, on his work. It is my understanding that it is more important for Johnson to promote anti-racial messages and protest against the mistreatment of people of colour. Johnson himself said that writing anti-establishment poetry during the Race Riots could be considered an act of protest, an act that could have been to his great detriment as a result of the United Kingdoms fervent racism. This shows Johnson to have integrity he is writing about what he believes is important and worth saying; one way to perform a test of literary merit must be, first, the sincerity of the writer. I would be willing, I think, even to add t he seriousness of purpose of the writer (Peters, 2006). From this, one can argue that Johnsons sincerity in his writing of his experiences, and his determination to express anger and encourage reactions to political issues makes his work literary. In If I waz a tap-natch poet, he purposely distinguishes himself from any of the other writers he mentions; he seems to exist in a liminal space, and it is difficult to discern where he sees himself within the hierarchy of literary and popular. It is arguable that he doesnt consider himself a part of either category, because neither of them serve any importance to him. However, whether a text is deemed literary or popular is very rarely a decision made by its own creator; Johnson is simply distancing himself from the process, as he feels it is unnecessary. Although his work holds no evidence of popular culture references, it is certainly popular amongst a specific minority group; people of colour. They have experienced many of the atrociti es he writes of, and can relate to them in a way that the white Western mainstream cannot. As a result, I would argue that Johnsons writing is certainly popular amongst a niche audience, and that appealing to the mass market is not the only category that makes a text worthy of the title. Johnson first became active in the poet community in school, but he was not published until 1974, in the journal Race Today. In the same year, Harper Lees controversial bildungsroman To Kill a Mockingbird was also released. Both Johnson and Lee tackle the subject matter of racism, albeit in different areas of the world, and Lees novel is regarded as one of the greatest of our generation. The difference between Harper Lee and Linton Kwesi Johnson is that one is a privileged white woman, and the other a Jamaican man of working-class background, whose poetry is not isnt carefully pre-packaged in the standard Oxford Dictionary English, the mainstream being young white heterosexual teenagers, who of cour se, prefer to access literature in this way. Johnson is angry about his mistreatment, and that of so many other people of colour, at the hands of white policemen and politicians and civilians. When declaring a text worthy of literary merit, critics significantly consider the moral or messages the story is trying to create, usually through the medium of symbolism or allegory. The metonymic concept of bread and circuses becomes particularly apt when looking at The Hunger Games, as the Latin translation Panem et circenses served as inspiration for the name of the novels fictional setting, Panem. The phrase, first used by Juvenal, who was degrading the sheep-like nature of common people, their selfishness and obliviousness to wider concerns and civic duty, alludes to an appeasement with a lack of substance. It refers to the way in which supposedly democratic governments make use of superficial distractions to satisfy the immediate, shallow requirements of a populace in order to continue to manipulate them for hegemonic gain. Although this could make reference to the Capitols attempts to placate the districts so they cannot overthrow their regime and dismantle their hierarchy, it could also be an allegory for the way in which popular culture works in the real world. When taking a Marxist reading of the novel, it is arguable that Collins was inspired by the Industrial Revolution, most noticeably the living conditions in 19th century Europe. Katniss illustrates this by saying What must it be like, I wonder, to live in world where food appears at the press of a button? How would I spend the hours I now commit to combing the woods for sustenance if it were so easy to come by (Collins, 2008). Collins plot coincides with Marxs socialist philosophy; Panem is comprised of two groups, the proletariat, or the people of the districts, and the bourgeoisie, or the Capitol. This highlights what is a fundamentally unfair system wherein the majority of wealth is held by the minority whilst the general public struggle to maintain a living. This is further evidenced by President Snows hosting of the Hunger Games, themselves, wherein his government hold complete power over the Districts and their people, who have absolutely no hope of ascending to higher status. Katniss, the protagonist of the novel, lives in the district that is hardest hit by the Capitols regime. She represents the lowest of the proletariat, whereas the closer the districts are to the Capitol, the more advantageous; Its tempting, so tempting, when I see the bounty waiting there before me. And I know that if I dont get it, someone else will. That the Career Tributes who survive the bloodbath will divide up most of these life-sustaining spoils. (Collins, 2008) Here, Katniss describes the Career tributes are more likely to survive, having received training for their entire lives to prepare for the games. Whilst Districts One and Two still have to supply children for the games, this is a mere faà §ade, bread and circuses; Snow makes the districts think everything is equal, but in actuality, the Career tributes are much likelier to survive and win the Games, thus maintaining the bourgeo isie whilst slowly killing off the poor. However, Katniss follows the Marxist ideology and seizes the means of production. Collins writes Without a victor, the whole thing would blow up in the Gamemakers faces. Theyd have failed the Capitol. Might possibly even be executed slowly and painfully, while the cameras broadcast it to every screen in the country (Collins, 2008) By refusing to conform, rejecting the role of victor and encouraging Peeta to do the same, this forces the Gamemakers to change the rules and allow both to win. Katniss is still aware, though, that the Capitol would have the power to make an example of the Gamemakers to restore order. These allusions to Marxism and communist theory imply that there is a lot more depth to Collins work than it at first seems; by incorporating themes of real life class issues, she is commenting on societal problems and posing a moral question regarding Americas modern class system. When asked how he would define literariness, critic Walter Van Tilburg Clark declared the final test of literary merit, is the power to endure obviously such a test cannot be applied to a new or recent work, and one cannot, I think, offer soundly an opinion on the probability of endurance (Peters, 2006). Here, he is arguing that the most significant criterion of the definition is that if a text can endure, it can be considered worthy of literary merit. It is not, then, necessary for a text to follow the other rules regarding context, connotations or conveying a higher meaning; if a text is popular, it is likely to endure. The Hunger Games Trilogy spent 50 weeks on the New York Times bestseller list and has been translated to the screen as a multi-million dollar film series. Such a lengthy stay at the top of a highly-regarded rating system is suggestive of endurance, and therefore, regardless of the issues the trilogy presents in terms of stereotypical pop-culture tropes and character moulds, it can be defined as literary. In addition, the concept of literariness is one that is inherently subjective; particularly because aesthetic value is entirely based in personal preference. It is, according to critics, a relic of a scholarly elite.Similarly, the predispositions regarding popular texts and its dismissal as uncultured also seem to be outdated views stemming from old-fashioned beliefs. The examination and understanding of popular culture, therefore, is necessary to understanding ourselves, our identities and the world that surrounds us. A text that is considered brilliant by one, will be terrible to another; we each have different interests and tastes, and there is never going to be unanimity when defining literary and popular and the difference between them. The study of popular culture enables us to consider literature in a less judgemental, more open-minded fashion, voiding the inherent laws of what makes a text literary or fundamentally good. Popular cultur e does not exclusively lend itself only to companies to churn out poorly-written prose lacking in value and increase financial revenue, although it is manipulated by those in power to detract from real life issues; just because this is the case some of the time, it doesnt define all literature that falls into the category of popular as unworthy of also being literary. The two terms are not mutually exclusive, and a text does not give up its right to being one by adhering to some characteristics of the other. The spectrum of defining literary and popular categories, albeit arbitrary in nature, which are not binary opposites in terms of literature, is, in my opinion, one that is entirely personal, and each individual will hold opinion on where any given text falls; that does not make them true, as there are no correct answers. Word Count: 3496 _____________________________________________________________________ References Johnson, L. K (2002) If I Woz a Nap-Natch Poet, Mi Revalueshanary Fren: Selected Poems London: Penguin Collins, Suzanne (2008) The Hunger Games New York, Scholastic University of Iowa (1967) An Interview With William Faulkner The Western Review: A Literary Quarterly, Volume 15, Number 4 Ross, Lillian (1950) Profiles: How Do You Like It Now, Gentlemen? The New Yorker, F. R. Publishing Corporation, New York. Berrong, R.M (1986) Rabelais and Bakhtin: Popular Culture in Gargantua and Pantagruel University of Nebraska Press Gans, Herbert J (2008) Popular culture and high culture Basic Books. pp. 8-10 Storey, J (2014) From Popular Culture to Everyday Life Routledge French, C.T Literary Fiction vs Genre Fiction[online] http://www.authorsden.com/categories/article_top.asp?catid=10id=18884 (accessed December 2016) McKee, R (1997) Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of Screenwriting New York: HarperCollins. p. 87 Giroux, Henry (2000) Stealing Innocence: Youth, Corporate Power and the Politics of Culture, New York, St. Martins Press Reynolds, W (2006) Cultural curriculum studies, multiplicity and cinematic-machines Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, Caddo Gap Press Wroe, N (2008) I did my own thing [online] https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/mar/08/featuresreviews.guardianreview11 (accessed December 2016) McGill, R (2003) Goon poets of the black Atlantic: Linton Kwesi Johnsons imagined canon Textual Practice, Vol. 17, Issue 3 Scholastic (2010) Video: Classical Inspiration, The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins [online] http://ww(w.scholastic.com/thehungergames/videos/classical-inspiration.htm (accessed December 2016) Bill, M; Peters, N (2006) Howl on Trial: The Battle for Free Expression City Lights Books. p. 224. Poland as a Potential Market: Environmental Analysis Poland as a Potential Market: Environmental Analysis 1.  INTRODUCTION Servcorp is an Australian-owned services company that specialises in the provision of business solutions. Its main offerings include fully-serviced office packages (office space bundled with IT and communications infrastructure and accompanied by IT and administrative staff), virtual office products such as communications and address services, and meeting rooms for hire (Servcorp, n.d.). Servcorp has expanded its operations into New Zealand, the U.S., Asia, and Europe. While the company operates in the UK, Belgium, and France, it does not currently operate in Poland. In this report, I will analyse five environmental factors relevant to the consideration of Poland as a potential market for Servcorp. These are the country’s political and legal environment, economic environment, trade and financial environment, social and cultural environment, and infrastructure. The ensuing discussion will integrate these findings and provide an overall outlook for Poland. Finally, based on these analyses, a number of recommendations will be put forward regarding Servcorp’s potential expansion into Poland. 3.  ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 3.1.  Political and legal environment Poland has become one of the most politically stable European countries since it joined the European Union (EU) in 2004 (Bujnicki, 2013). In 2012, Poland ranked below the OECD average on the FDI Regulatory Restrictiveness Index (where a lower score indicates fewer restrictions on FDI) (OECD, 2012). Poland also has a number of state aid measures in place to attract foreign investment. For example, the country has 14 Special Economic Zones; these areas have relaxed income taxation rules and have the appropriate infrastructure in place for starting a business, though businesses require a license to operate in these zones (Lex Mundi, 2013). In Poland, then, Servcorp would find political environment that actively encourages FDI with the view that it is vital to developing the country’s economy. While Poland has few restrictions on FDI, its overall regulatory environment is somewhat complex. The World Bank (2013) ranked Poland 45 of 189 countries on the ease of doing business in 2013, though pointed out that the country’s tax system remains complex and outdated. It takes an average of 685 days to enforce contracts in Poland compared to the OECD average of 529 days, and a number of other bureaucratic hurdles remain (World Bank, 2013). For Servcorp, these factors mean that the company might have to do substantial research into Poland’s tax system, as it contains intricacies not present in Australia’s taxation laws. Property registration is a vital consideration for Servcorp, as the nature of the business means that they must acquire office space to hire out to clients as well as a building for their own use. The World Bank (2013) ranked Poland 54 on the ease of registering property. This is compared with a rank of 40 for Australia; however, there is only one more procedure involved in registering property in Poland than there is in Australia, so red tape in this arena is only slightly more pronounced. 3.2.  Economic environment Real GDP growth in Poland ranged from 1.6% to 6.8% during the period 2005-2012; Poland was the only country in the EU to experience a growth in GDP during the 2008-2009 global financial crisis (OECD, 2013). Real GDP in Poland is expected to grow by 2.7% in 2014 and 3.3% in 2015 (OECD, 2013). However, Poland experienced a small slump in economic growth in 2013; recent changes in fiscal policy have been aimed at encouraging economic growth through expanding the budget deficit and eliminating restrictions on fiscal stimulus measures (Onoszko Krasuski, 2013). Overall, demand for the modern services provided by Servcorp may increase as Poland’s citizens experience an increase in wealth and the economy continues to grow at a healthy rate as a result of these fiscal measures. The slight downturn in real GDP growth in 2013 has been accompanied by low inflation (Eglitis, 2013). This is promising for Servcorp, as it means that the business may be in a better position to make long-term plans with the knowledge that their purchasing power will not decline, and borrowing costs may be lower. With the Polish government’s planned relaxation of fiscal policy, however, Servcorp must continue to track changes in inflation given that these measures may work to raise inflation. 3.3.  Trade and financial environment Relevant bilateral agreements between Australia and Poland include the Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement and the Double Taxation Agreement (DFAT, 2013). These agreements ensure that the interests of foreign investors are protected in Poland, and in the case of the latter agreement, that foreign businesses do not have to pay taxes on their business profits in each of the two countries. In short, both agreements are conducive to Servcorp doing business in Poland. A discussion regarding tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade in Poland will not take place here as Servcorp is not seeking to export to or import from Poland—rather, this report considers the risks and opportunities Servcorp faces in establishing operations in Poland. For similar reasons, free trade agreements that Poland has with other European countries will not be discussed here. In 2012, Poland ranked 37 on the Financial Development Index, which along with other factors, considers a country’s financial stability (World Economic Forum, 2012). Specifically, the WEF found that Poland performed particularly well in terms of the stability of its exchange rate and banking system. The leniency with which currency transactions are treated in Poland depends heavily upon the nature of the relationship between the transactor’s home country and Poland (Lex Mundi, 2013). Because Australia has a tax treaty with Poland (ATO, 2012), Australians can expect to face minimal problems when engaging in currency transactions in Poland. It appears that Servcorp would face little financial risk in the country. 3.4.  Social and cultural environment In Poland, 60.9% of the total population live in urban areas (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). This is compared to 80% in the UK, 97% in Belgium, and 85% in France. Poland’s comparatively low rate of urbanisation suggests that there may be less of a demand for the services that Servcorp offers (office space, IT and communications infrastructure for businesses) in Poland compared with the other European countries in which the company operates. Religion plays a prominent role in Poland, with 89.8% of the population identifying as Roman Catholic (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). Servcorp must recognise and close business on religious occasions that are not recognised as national holidays in Australia, such as Corpus Christi. Poland also tends to score highly on uncertainty avoidance, meaning that citizens may reject unorthodox or innovative ideas put forward by some businesses (The Hofstede Centre, n.d.). This poses a small risk to Servcorp given that much of their product offering rests on their â€Å"virtual office† innovation; Poles may be wary of this unfamiliar idea. In terms of corruption, Poland’s score on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) in 2013 was 60 of a possible 100 (where 100 indicates no corruption whatsoever), above the world average (Transparency International, 2013). However, there is some concern that Poland does not have the appropriate frameworks in place to manage the growing risk of foreign bribery that comes with its expanding economy (OECD, 2013). Servcorp must be aware of this risk while simultaneously recognising that bribery is not an endemic part of Polish culture. 3.5.  Infrastructure Poland’s score on the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) in 2012 was 3.10 (where the maximum possible score is 5) (World Bank, 2012). This is substantially lower than the 2012 scores received by the European countries in which Servcorp currently operates (the UK, Belgium, and France, which received scores of 3.95, 4.12, and 3.96 respectively). The OECD (2013) remarked that the quality of Poland’s transport and communications infrastructure â€Å"are among the lowest in the OECD† (p. 217). A finding of particular concern is that Poland’s fixed broadband coverage is the lowest in the EU, at only 69.1% (Point Topic, 2012). Poland’s relatively low fixed broadband coverage may prove problematic for Servcorp given that a substantial portion of their business model rests on their provision of modern IT and communications infrastructure to organisations. When acquiring office space for company use as well as for hiring out to clients, a constant concern may be whether or not there is broadband access at that location. Though this is an issue, things may be set to improve: a joint venture between Hawe and TP Teltech is aimed at substantially improving Poland’s broadband infrastructure (van Blommestein, 2012). 5.  REFERENCES Australian Taxation Office. (2012). Countries that have a tax treaty with Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.ato.gov.au/General/International-tax-agreements/In-detail/Tax-treaties/Countries-that-have-a-tax-treaty-with-Australia/ Bujnicki, P. (2013, February 23). Zloty climbs as Fitch revises Poland rating outlook to positive. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-22/zloty-climbs-as-fitch-revises-poland-rating-outlook-to-positive.html Central Intelligence Agency (2013). The World Factbook: Poland. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pl.html DFAT. (2013). Poland country brief. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/poland/poland_brief.html Eglitis, A. (2013, November 15). Polish October inflation rate drops to lowest in four months. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-14/polish-october-inflation-rate-drops-to-lowest-in-four-months.html Lex Mundi. (2013). Doing business in Poland. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.lexmundi.com/lexmundi/Guides_To_Doing_Business.asp Ministry of Treasury (2012). Fast growth of business services sector in Poland and prospects of its continuation – business services centers are becoming Polish specialty. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://msp.gov.pl/en/polish-economy/economic-news/3641,Fast-growth-of-business-services-sector-in-Poland-and-prospects-of-its-continuat.html OECD (2012). FDI Regulatory Restrictiveness Index. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/investment/fdiindex.htm OECD. (2013a). Country statistical profile: Poland. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/country-statistical-profile-poland_20752288-table-pol OECD. (2013b). Poland – Economic forecast summary. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/eco/outlook/polandeconomicforecastsummary.htm OECD. (2013a). Poland needs strategy to meet growing risk of foreign bribery. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti-bribery/polandneedsstrategytomeetgrowingriskofforeignbribery.htm OECD. (2013b). Economic policy reforms: Going for growth 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/inclusive-growth/Economic%20Policy%20Reforms%202013%20Going%20for%20Growth.pdf Onoszko, M., Krasuski, K. (2013, July 17). Poland to relax budget and fiscal rules to stimulate economy. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-07-16/polish-government-relaxes-budget-fiscal-rules-to-boost-economy.html Point Topic. (2012). Broadband coverage in Europe in 2012: Mapping progress towards the coverage objectives of the Digital Agenda. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://point-topic.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Point-Topic-Broadband-Coverage-in-Europe-in-2012-Final-Report-20130813.pdf Servcorp. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved January 6, 2014, from http://www.servcorp.com.au/en/about-us/ The Hofstede Center. (n.d.). Poland. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://geert-hofstede.com/poland.html Transparency International. (2013). Corruption Perceptions Index 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/#myAnchor1 van Blommestein. (2012). Is Poland finally getting out of the broadband slow lane? Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.zdnet.com/is-poland-finally-getting-out-of-the-broadband-slow-lane-7000003129/ World Bank. (2012). Logistics performance index: Quality of trade and transport-related infrastructure [Data set]. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/LP.LPI.INFR.XQ World Bank. (2013). Doing business 2014. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/Documents/Annual-Reports/English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf World Economic Forum. (2012). The Financial Development Report 2012. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_FinancialDevelopmentReport_2012.pdf

Genetically Modified Plants in Agriculture :: GMOs Genetically Modified Foods

Genetically Modified Plants in Agriculture The use of agriculture to grow edible plants is an essential step in the worldwide goal of nations to maintain self-sufficiency. Through agriculture, crops are raised by the cultivation of soils, in conjunction with the biological processes that allow for plant growth. In recent years, genetic engineering has enabled plant scientists to insert genes from one type of plant species, which will express a desired trait, into a different plant species that had not been able to obtain the genes through cross fertilization or other natural pathways. The possibilities arising from the use of genetically modified (GM) plants seem as an excellent answer to the overwhelming problems of environmental degradation and food instability worldwide, but society is now faced with the possible implications that could occur with an influx of "new" plants. These implications lead to a massive debate ranging from health issues to who owns seeds that are produced by GM plants. Included in this debate as well is the question of how much power should be given to large multinational companies who have developed the new technology. Farming and agricultural methods have become far more complex, as they have evolved throughout time. Ancient methods allowed for the taming of plants and animals to provide for a transition from nomadic lifestyles of constantly moving in search of food and water, to the agricultural lifestyle of self-sufficiency at a permanent residence. Evolution in the complexity of agricultural methods and techniques has occurred in part due to a search for maximum efficiency by an advancing society. Efficiency has always been a dominant motivational factor for new techniques to be allocated in this field, and in this last century, especially in the last decade, changes unfathomable to farmers past and present have taken place along the lines of efficiency. Along with increased use of fertilizers, high-yielding hybrid seed varieties that have been produced by plant breeding techniques have dramatically increased the average production per land area. In recent years, the scientific community has developed a process enabling genetic engineers to insert genes expressing a desired trait into crops that had not been able to obtain these genes from other species through cross fertilization methods. These genes can then be passed down to the seeds of the newly recombined plant and will be expressed in the generations following. The Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources better describes how genetic modification technology affects agriculture in the present era:

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay -- Essays on Anxiety Disorde

OCD: What's in Control? Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder that is the fourth most common mental illness in the U.S. (8). OCD affects five million Americans, or one in five people (3). This is a serious mental disorder that causes people to think and act certain things repetitively in order to calm the anxiety produced by a certain fear. Unlike compulsive drinking or gambling, OCD compulsions do not give the person pleasure; rather, the rituals are performed to obtain relief from the discomfort caused by obsessions (2). OCD is more common than schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or panic disorder, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (6). This disorder can be therapeutically treated, but not cured. The causes of OCD are not completely understood, and warrant further exploration of self-control and autonomy. There are many branches or types of OCD. Within all branches, ninety percent of people suffer from both obsessions and compulsions, rather than solely one or the other (1). One category of OCD sufferers tend to check and recheck items from 10-100 times - such as a locked door. The overwhelming impulse to recheck remains until the person experiences a reduction in tension despite the realization that the item is secure (1). OCD sufferers also tend to habitually wash due to fear of contamination. Another form of OCD is hoarding, which is excessive saving of typically worthless items such as shoes or computer disks due to an overwhelming fear that one day these items might be of use. People who suffer from the ordering branch of OCD, feels compelled to place items in a designated spot or order to alleviate worries of disorder and mayhem. Pure-O sufferers are those people who grapple wi... ...e.com/defineocd.htm 2) Obsessive Compulsive Foundation-What is OCD? http://www.ocfoundation.org/ocf1010a.htm 3) Most Frequently asked questions about OCD http://www.ocdhelp.org/faq.html 4) Obsessive Compulsive Foundation, related Disorders http://www.ocfoundation.org/ocf1020a.htm 5) Obsessive Compulsive Foundation-How is OCD treated? http://www.ocfoundation.org/ocf1030a.htm 6) OCD and Tic Disorders http://mentalhelp.net/poc/center_index.php?id=6 7) A Cognitive Therapeutic Differentiation Between Conceptualizing and Managing OCD http://www.ocdonline.com/definecbt.htm 8) Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: OCD http://www.ocdhelp.org/ocdfacts.html 9)Letizia et al. 2001. Abnormal Pattern of Cortical Activation Associated with Voluntary Movement in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: an EEG Study. American journal of Psychiatry. 158: 140-142.

Educational Philosophy :: Education Educating Teaching Essays

Educational Philosophy Today’s educators are setting the pace for their students’ tomorrow. Educators are expected of so much more today than they were twenty years ago. It is the teachers’ responsibility to provide their students with an education as well as a personal identity, and a sense of comfort. Every student that walks into a classroom contains a different set of needs that their teacher must meet. The educational aspect of teaching is a given, but the teacher must also aid their students in being individuals and appreciating who they are and where they come from. Teachers must also provide comfort and security for their students. The more comfortable that a student feels with their teacher, the more apt they will be to share issues they are struggling with in their lives. One of the reasons that I want to be an educator is because I want to fill every one of my students with confidence. I intend to pack the minds of my students with an endless supply of knowledge as well as e ncouragement in every aspect of their life. They will be taught to love themselves and appreciate their background. Another reason that I want to be an educator is because I truly love spending time with children. I was born the third of six children. I have experienced the role of being the baby sister and the big sister. I feel that I can relate with children very well because I spent so much time with my family. My final reason for wanting to be an educator is to explore different teaching style. I have been especially interested in creating a classroom for cooperative learning and Existentialism. My classroom will be the perfect learning environment. I will paint the room in light pastels and place carpet on a section of the floor. The carpeted section of the room will contain couches and beanbags. This area will be used mainly for group discussion. I will fill the walls with inspirational quotes and artwork provided by the students. I will have tables in my room instead of desks. I encourage cooperative learning because I feel that group work improves problem-solving and reading skills. Students will be graded on their participation inside of the group as far as working together and assisting group members. When it is time for the class to be evaluated, I will ask the students to leave their groups and select a special place in the room where they can go and work independently.

Language and Identity Essay

This paper is explaining and assessing the relationships between language and Identity. As the topic is too large to discuss, the paper will be focusing on the language and identity of teenagers. By looking at their characteristics, we will discuss how they build up a kind of identity in different social group by means of language. The paper will also include the argument on how people view the relationships between language and identity. Defining Identity According to The Free Dictionary by Farlex, identity is the state of having unique identifying characteristics held by no other person or thing. It is the individual characteristics by which a person or thing is recognized. For my own definition of identity, it is one’s conception and expression of themselves in groups, family, society. Identification is one of the related concepts of identity, which can help explaining what identity is. In sociological aspect, identification means one’s interests and values are accepted in a social group. The acceptance offered by the social group help building up one’s own identity. Subjectivity is another relating concept of identity. It means one’s thoughts and ideas are in the state of being subjective. Undoubtedly, think subjectively is a good way to show one’s unique identity. After discussing certain concepts related to identity, so, how identity is relating to language? Identity relating language As defined as above, identity is the recognition of one’s values and expressions in a social group. In a community, there are numbers of social group: family, schools, workplace, etc. Usually, an individual is a member of several social groups at the same time, and certainly, one is playing quite a different role in different social groups. As every social group is having its unique natures, ideas accepted by a group may not be accepted by another. Therefore, using appropriate language to show one’s identity is essential. In different social group, we can show our unique identity by means of language, since language enables us to express certain status, as well as giving impression to others. In the following part, we are discussing how teenagers view on their relationships around by looking at some characteristics of them and surely, the discussion will be based on language and identity perspective. Language and Identity: teenagers’ views on the relationships In teenage ages, schools and family are believed to be the two closest social group of adolescent. Therefore, we will be focusing on teenagers’ views towards these two groups of people, friends and parents. Friends/Peers Regarding to some common characteristics of typical teenagers, they usually put friends at the first place and like hanging out with friends. They even feel like no one understands them except their friends. Also, they start paying attention to their appearance and find peer’ recognitions on their outfit very important. Such being the case, language used among peers are usually aim at seeking recognition. For example, they like to develop some special terms or vocabularies which are only understand by them, but not their teachers or parents. This is one of the ways showing how teenagers build up a kind of unique identity among peers using language. Parents People in teenage ages usually want to get rid of parents’ control and start setting up a set of own values, which is often quite different from their parents. Besides, they emphasize on individuality. Furthermore, they start doing some adult-like things such as smoking, doing make up and buying luxury goods to express their desire on gaining more rights. Teenagers hate doing things which their parents expect them to do while enjoy doing things which their parents do not want them to, with a view to expressing individuality and drawing attention from their parents. Therefore, whenever their parents hold a disagree view on what they do, they love using language like ‘You know what?’ or ‘You don’t even try to understand me!’ to reply their parents. This show how teenagers view on their parents and how they using language express a kind of ‘new identity’ in the family. In next part, the paper will include analysis of some daily conversations, which are all real examples I took in my daily life. The analysis will be based on the SPEAKING acronym and the theory by Bakhtin about how speech genre affects one’s speech. Language and Identity: Case study Theory by Bakhtin Bakhtin proposed that language is used in typical social situations. He also added that speaking occurs in speech genres which guide the interaction and which are determined by social structure. Speech genres organize our speech in almost the same way as grammatical forms do.

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory Essay

Introduction As a young child, he was learning everything an independent, curious, and analytical toddler would be learning. At one and a half years of age, in his second stage of child development, he was mastering his walking skills and beginning to work on control and management. By the time he turned four he was in his next stage of development, beginning to copy what he was learning from adults, and exploring new and interesting activities. He was given the opportunity of free play and improved his sense of self-esteem. This sense of imagination and creativity would help him transition to the next stage. Finally, in the fourth stage of child development, around age seven, he was beginning to question who he really was and what his purpose and role was. He was put into social situations and was given the opportunity to interact with other children. He was Erik Erikson, and little did he know may have once lived through his own stages of psychosocial development. In this paper, I will discuss Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. His credentials and research are important to support his theory, and it is interesting to know the facts about famous theorists. I will be concentrating on stages two, three, and four as they pertain to primarily early childhood students. I will also discuss what I observed in an actual classroom and compare and contrast what I found out related to the different stages. Finally, I will mention the controversy over Erik Erikson’s theory and the evidence to support and argue the facts. Erikson developed an important theory that has helped explain human development. Erik Erikson Erik Erikson was born in 1902 in Germany. He did not start his career as a psychologist; â€Å"†¦in fact, Erikson never graduated from high school† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 67). Erikson’s heavy interest and influences for identity were developed through his own experiences during school (Van Wagner, 2007). â€Å"Erikson spent his childhood in Germany, his adolescence wandering through Italy, and his young adulthood in Austria† (Berger, 2005, p. 35). A meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna led Erikson to an  interest for studying psychoanalysis (Woolfolk, 2007). According to Van Wagner (2007), Erikson earned a certificate from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.  Along with psychologists such as Freud, Erikson believed that crises of adult life reflect unresolved conflicts of childhood. However, his stages differed â€Å"significantly from Freud’s in that they emphasized people’s relationships to their family and culture, not only to their sexual urges† (Berger, 2005, p. 36). Through his stages, Woolfolk (2007) suggests that â€Å"Erikson offered a framework for understanding the needs of young people in relation to the society in which they grow, learn and later make their contributions† (p. 67). Each of the developmental stages confronts a person with a new task or ability that must be mastered for the best possible and most successful development (Coon, 2006). Because of this mastery, Erikson firmly believed in a psychosocial dilemma that causes problems through each stage. â€Å"A psychosocial dilemma is a conflict between personal impulses and the social world† (Coon, 2006, p. 113). The process in which the individual resolves each developmental conflict will have an impact on their self-image and view of the world (Woolfolk, 2007). Erikson identified eight different stages in the life cycle for human development (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2005). â€Å"Erikson’s psychosocial theory emphasized the emergence of self, the search for identity, the individual’s relationships with others, and the role of culture through life† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 67). Erikson furthered his career by moving to the United States in 1933 and accepting a teaching position at t he Harvard Medical School. As well as his new teaching position, he also developed his own private practice in child psychoanalysis (Van Wagner, 2007). After arriving in the United States, according to Berger (2005), Erikson â€Å"studied Harvard students, children at play, and Native American cultures† (p. 35). All of these different experiences helped Erikson to understand the importance of cultural diversity and significant changes that occur throughout the life cycle (Berger, 2005). According to the Erik Erikson Biography, â€Å"he utilized the knowledge he gained of cultural, environmental, and social influences to further develop his psychoanalytic theory.† Through his research, Erikson gathered  all of his information and results and published numerous books on his findings, including Childhood and Society and The Life Cycle Completed. Erikson’s book, Ghandi’s Truth, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize and received a national Book Award. In addition to Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, he also added an understanding of the development of personality and how it changes throughout the l ife cycle (Van Wagner, 2007). Psychosocial Development Stages â€Å"Erikson proposed eight developmental stages covering the entire life span, each characterized by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis† (Berger, 2005, p. 36). Throughout stage one, trust versus mistrust, the main challenge of a child is the significant dependence on other people, mainly the parents. Erikson suggested that this stage was known as trust or mistrust because certain attitudes are developed at this time (Coon, 2006). After attaining the goal of stage one, the ability to trust, the child is ready to move onto stage two of development. Stage Two- Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt â€Å"Erikson’s second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt, marks the beginning of self-control and self-confidence† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 68). This stage occurs between the ages of eighteen months and three years. Children are either sufficient in activities including toilet training, or begin to doubt their own abilities if they are unsuccessful (Berger, 2005). The children that can complete this stage with success develop a sense of confidence and security, but those who do not succeed are left with a feeling of self-doubt (Van Wagner, 2007). â€Å"If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child’s efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel shame; they may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 68). Toddlers want to develop autonomy (also known as self-rule) over themselves and be able to control their actions. According to Erikson, the most efficient way of getting past this crisis and developing autonomy is a sense of guidance and security from parents (Berger, 2005). Overall, in stage  two, Erikson believes that if children experience too much doubt they will lack self-esteem in their abilities throughout their life. As long as the child can maintain their self-esteem and develop their sense of autonomy, they can move on to the third stage (Woolfolk, 2007). Stage Three- Initiative versus Guilt â€Å"During the third developmental stage described by Erikson, called initiative versus guilt, selfesteem emerges from the skills and competencies that demonstrate independence and initiative† (Berger, 2005, p. 237). This stage generally happens between the ages of three and six. During this stage, children move from simple activities to more complex such as developing self-control and beginning to take initiative (Coon, 2006). Woolfolk states â€Å"the challenge of this period is to maintain a zest for activity and at the same time understand that not every impulse can be acted on† (2007, p. 68). During the first years of school, children take the initiative and control their world through organizing social interactions (Van Wagner, 2007). Children want to participate in adult like activities, but are afraid of the guilt they may experience (Berger, 2005). â€Å"If children are not allowed to do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop; they may come to bel ieve that what they want to do is always wrong† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 68). When children play, they learn how to make plans and follow through with them. Parents should give children the freedom and opportunity to do things on their own, such as ask questions, play, and choose their own activities (Coon, 2006). Toward the end of the preschool years, children who develop that sense of trust can initiate activities both intellectual and motor, to help them learn that they can do things on their own (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2005). According to the article entitled, Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, â€Å"Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative† (Van Wagner, 2007). Many psychologists, such as Erikson, believe that guilt is a more mature and natural emotion than shame, but both shame and guilt derive from social standards. On the other hand, guilt indicates that the child has  become self-motivated (Berger, 2005). The ways that parents react to their child’s activities either encourages their sense of freedom and confidence or produces the feelings of guilt, which makes the child feel that they are doing wrong and canno t overcome this challenge to move to the next stage (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2005). After overcoming and mastering the skill to take initiative, the child is ready to move to the fourth stage of development. Stage Four- Industry versus Inferiority The challenge for the child during their school years is what Erikson named industry versus inferiority (Woolfolk, 2007). This is the fourth stage of psychosocial development, and occurs during the early school years from approximately age five to eleven. â€Å"During the elementary school years, the child who has successfully resolved the crises of the earlier stages is ready to go beyond random exploring and testing to the systematic development of competencies† (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2005, p. 338). During these years, children learn and develop skills that are valued by society, and their success or failure affects their feeling of competence (Coon, 2006). During this psychosocial crisis of industry versus inferiority, children work on mastering the abilities that are valued by their culture (Berger, 2005). The children can see the relationship between determination and the pleasure that comes when a job is completed (Woolfolk, 2007). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development suggests that social interactions allow children to develop pride in their accomplishments and abilities (Van Wagner, 2007). Children learn the sense of industry if they win praise for their productive activities, and the sense of inferiority if their efforts are inadequate or unsuccessful (Coon, 2006). â€Å"Children must master new skills and work toward new goals, at the same time they are being compared to others and risking failure† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 69). Each child judges themselves in their own way as either industrious or inferior; they look at it as either being a winner or a loser (Berger, 2005). The way that each individual child copes with their own crisis in this stage, affects the  outcomes of the rest of their school years (Woolfolk, 2007). Once again parental guidance is important. The  children that are praised by their parents develop a feeling of confidence and belief in their own abilities, but those who receive little recognition from their parents revert back to the feeling of doubt from the previous stages (Van Wagner, 2007). As children move to the adolescence stage, their cognitive processes develop more effectively and they can think theoretically and can understand the ideas of others more clearly (Woolfolk, 2007). The severity and degree to the challenges varies widely from each child, and they must learn how to cope with their challenges individually to overcome them, and move onto the next stage of development. Most of the techniques to transition to the next stage come naturally, but each child may develop them at different rates. It is important to help the child successfully overcome their challenges to help them move onto the next stage (Berger, 2005). There are four more developmental stages that help in describing the development of the psychosocial theory, and Van Wagner (2007) states that during each stage people experience a conflict or crisis that helps as a transition in the developmental process. This challenge or crisis must be met and overcome before the child can move onto the next stage. While figuring out how to conquer their own personal challenge, the child will learn skills and abilities that will help them in their development throughout the life cycle (Woolfolk, 2007). Observations When children start school, around the age of five, their cognitive abilities are developing rapidly (Woolfolk, 2007). â€Å"The elementary-school years are a child’s ‘entrance into life’† (Coon, 2006, p. 114). Children begin to process more information faster; they are moving from preoperational to concrete operational thinking. â€Å"As these internal changes progress, the children are spending hours every weekday in the new physical and social world of school† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 69). On March 3, 2008, I visited Kasson-Mantorville Elementary School. I was in a second grade classroom and  was able to observe and analyze the children. I wanted to look for the specific actions and transitions Erik Erikson discusses in his second, third, and fourth stages of psychosocial development. Since I was in a second grade classroom I knew that I would probably see children transitioning from stage three to four, and also children already in stage four. I was first looking for the physical development of the children. By the age of six or seven most children should have the ability of grasping and controlling, which is one of the main abilities learned in stage two. I observed that most children had good control over their actions and knew what they were doing. Next, I wanted to look for the independence in each student. As Woolfolk (2007) states â€Å"the child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative but may be too forceful, which can lead to guilty feelings† (p. 67). I looked for a student that seemed to be very talkative or participated often. I wanted to try and find patterns in their behavior. I watched one specific student for awhile, and noticed a few interesting things. First, he always wanted to participate, which signified that he w asn’t afraid to talk in front of the class. This shows that he is able to be independent and shows that he has successfully reached the goal of stage three, which is self-esteem and â€Å"self-concept, or understanding of the self† (Berger, 2005, p. 237). Lastly, I wanted to see if any student was in stage four of industry versus inferiority. Erikson suggests that social relationships and interaction become very important in this stage. Students face the challenge of learning new tasks and when accomplishing each assignment they either feel a sense of success (industry) or failure (inferiority). I noticed that if a student received a wrong answer they would cover their head in their desk or look down. On the other hand, if a student was correct, they would hold their head high and were quite proud. These observations made it easier to picture what each child goes through during each stage. Observing students in the classroom gives sufficient first-hand experience in what children act like in each stage, and being able to analyze their actions made it easier to understand. I was able to directly apply the characteristics common to each stage to specific  children, and see how each child was different from the others. It is important to remember that all children develop at different rates and some students may not be in the same stage as others. I looked for common characteristics and  behaviors to compare, and found it very helpful in my research to link the qualities with the specific stages. Controversy Erikson’s research and development of his psychosocial theory has sparked controversy over the years. There have been specific questions about his theory regarding the issues of the identity and intimacy, and how they intertwine in the development of a person. â€Å"Erikson’s work helped start the lifespan development approach, and his theories have been especially useful in understanding adolescence. But feminists have criticized this notion that identity precedes intimacy, because their research indicates that for women, identity achievement is fused with achieving intimacy† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 72). Erikson did not believe in the intimacy part of development in young children, unlike other psychologists such as Sigmund Freud. Erikson believed that the main part of each stage was a developmental crisis, while Freud on the other hand believed in the sexual impulses each person experienced. There are different opinions and perspectives on human development, and ea ch theorist has a different approach in figuring out the best way to describe the human life cycle. There are more positive observations on Erikson’s theory than there are negative. Most of the negative responses can be outweighed by positive remarks. One of the main concerns with people that disagree with Erikson is the developmental crisis aspect. According to the article entitled Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory (2007), the challenges and conflicts in each stage are not clearly defined. This article also suggests that the challenges in each stage may overlap and that could cause confusion in determining which stage a child may be in. On the other hand, Erikson suggests that these challenges must be achieved progressively and cannot be  overcome in one day. There are disagreements with every theory and each theorist has their own way of proving its truth. Erikson believed that the crises were not determined by age, rather the achievement of the abilities that must be mastered in each stage (Chapman, 2007). Conclusion All in all, the psychosocial development theory created by psychologist Erik Erikson, has been helpful in trying to figure out the process of the human life cycle. Erikson’s background was important in that his own personal experiences influenced him, and sparked the interest of human development and identity. Being influenced by Freud, he was able to compare and contrast his own theory to Freud’s, and give reasons why he thought his stages of development were more accurate. In Erikson’s eight stages, primarily stages two, three, and four, concentrate on the years of early childhood. These stages are crucial for the development of a child while going through many changes, such as beginning school and becoming more independent. The second stage of autonomy versus shame/doubt, from the age of eighteen months to three years, is when the child develops self-esteem and confidence. After mastering these skills the child progresses to stage three, (age three to six year s) initiative versus guilt, and begins to develop a sense of independence. Finally between the age of five and eleven and in stage four, industry versus inferiority, the child is met with social interactions and learns the abilities valued by society. These three stages are important in a child during their early years of life. By observing an actual classroom setting, I was able to apply the abilities described in each stage and analyze how the children acted. I noticed common patterns and behaviors that were described in each of the three stages, and thought it was very helpful to see the children in an actual classroom setting at work. There were some differences from Erikson’s theory to the way the children acted. As with any theory, there are controversies that need to be researched. Erikson’s theory has been questioned on why there isn’t a place for intimacy in the stages, but his stages are set up to evolve the identity. There is also the question of the clearly defined transition from each crisis. Erikson concludes that  one c annot transition from one crisis to the next in one day. The change of stages must be gradual with the mastering of specific abilities. Erik Erikson believed that his stages of psychosocial development would help people understand the changes each child goes through. He labeled each phase according to the characteristics and behaviors the child exhibits around a certain age. With his theory, people can begin to understand what children go through during their first few years of development. I believe that Erikson created an efficient theory for people to analyze and observe in children to determine how they develop. I think that this theory, along with any other theory, gives an alternate view on the development of a human, and how they develop and master the abilities learned throughout life. References Berger, K. S., (2005). The developing person through the life span. New York, NY: Catherine Woods. Chapman, A. (2006-7). Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from http://www.businessballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm#freud’s_psychose xual_stages. Coon, D. (2006). Psychology: A journey. Mason, OH: Thomson Wadsworth. Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2005). Psychology and life. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Van Wagner, K. (2007). Erik Erikson biography. Retrieved February 18, 2008, from http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_erikson.htm. Van Wagner, K. (2007). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Retrieved February 23, 2008, from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial.htm. Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.